4:01 know that a hydrocarbon is a compound of hydrogen and carbon only
Hydrocarbon: A molecule containing only hydrogen and carbon
4:02a understand how to represent organic molecules using molecular formulae, general formulae, structural formulae and displayed formulae
The molecular formula shows the actual number of atoms of each element in a molecule.
The general formula shows the relationship between the number of atoms of one element to another within a molecule. Members of a homologous series share the same general formula. The general formula for alkanes is CnH2n+2 and the general formula for alkenes is CnH2n.
A structural formula shows how the atoms in a molecule are joined together.
The displayed formula is a full structural formula which shows all the bonds in a molecule as individual lines.
The terms above are demonstrated with the example of butane.
- Displayed formula:
- Molecular formula: C₄H₁₀
- General formula (alkanes): CnH2n+2
- Structural formula: CH₃ – CH₂ – CH₂ – CH₃
The terms above are demonstrated with the example of ethene, which contains a double bond.
- Displayed formula:
- Molecular formula: C₂H₄
- General formula (alkenes): CnH2n
- Structural formula: CH₂ = CH₂
4:02 understand how to represent organic molecules using empirical formulae, molecular formulae, general formulae, structural formulae and displayed formulae
The molecular formula shows the actual number of atoms of each element in a molecule.
The empirical formula shows the simplest whole number ratio of atoms present in a compound. So the molecular formula is a multiple of the empirical formula.
The general formula shows the relationship between the number of atoms of one element to another within a molecule. Members of a homologous series share the same general formula. The general formula for alkanes is CnH2n+2 and the general formula for alkenes is CnH2n.
A structural formula shows how the atoms in a molecule are joined together.
The displayed formula is a full structural formula which shows all the bonds in a molecule as individual lines.
The terms above are demonstrated with the example of butane.
- Displayed formula:
- Molecular formula: C₄H₁₀
- Empirical formula: C₂H₅
- General formula (alkanes): CnH2n+2
- Structural formula: CH₃ – CH₂ – CH₂ – CH₃
The terms above are demonstrated with the example of ethene, which contains a double bond.
- Displayed formula:
- Molecular formula: C₂H₄
- Empirical formula: CH₂
- General formula (alkenes): CnH2n
- Structural formula: CH₂ = CH₂
4:03a know what is meant by the term isomerism
Isomers are molecules with the same molecular formula but with a different structure.
4:03 know what is meant by the terms homologous series, functional group and isomerism
A functional group is an atom or a group of atoms that determine the chemical properties of a compound.
For example the functional group of an alcohol is the -OH group and that of alkenes is the C=C carbon to carbon double bond.
A Homologous series is a group of substances with:
- the same general formula
- similar chemical properties because they have the same functional group
- a trend (graduation) in physical properties
Isomers are molecules with the same molecular formula but with a different structure.
4:04 understand how to name compounds relevant to this specification using the rules of International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) nomenclature. Students will be expected to name compounds containing up to six carbon atoms
The names of organic molecules are based on the number of carbon atoms in the longest chain. This chain is the longest consecutive line of carbon atoms, even if this line bends.
| The name is based on the number of carbon atoms in the longest chain |
|---|
| 1 Meth- |
| 2 Eth- |
| 3 Prop- |
| 4 But- |
| 5 Pent- |
| 6 Hex- |
| 7 Hept- |
| 8 Oct- |
| 9 Non- |
| 10 Dec- |
Hydrocarbons are molecules which contain only hydrogen and carbon.
Naming straight-chain alkanes
The simplest hydrocarbons are alkanes. They contain only single bonds, and have “-ane” in the name.
For example, the displayed formula of ethane (C₂H₆) is:
The name “ethane” contains “eth-” because there are 2 carbon atoms in the longest chain, and the name contains “-ane” because the molecule only has single bonds so is an alkane.
Another example is pentane (C₅H₁₂) which has the displayed formula:
The name “pentane” contains “pent-” because there are 5 carbon atoms in the longest chain, and the name contains “-ane” because the molecule only has single bonds, so is an alkane.
Remember, it does not matter if the longest consecutive line of carbons bends around. For example the displayed formula below still shows a very normal molecule of pentane (5 carbons in a row). Pentane is not normally drawn with the longest chain of carbons bent around because it could be confusing.
You might also see the bonds drawn at angles. Don’t worry, the displayed formula below is still pentane, as can be seen by the fact there are 5 carbon atoms in the longest chain, surrounded by hydrogen atoms bonded to the carbon atoms by single bonds.
A shorter way to express the detailed structure of an organic molecule is the structural formula. The structural formula for pentane is CH₃-CH₂-CH₂-CH₂-CH₃, which tells us the same information about the molecule as does the displayed formula, without the hassle of having to draw all the bonds or all the hydrogen atoms.
Naming straight-chain alkenes
Another simple group of hydrocarbons is the alkenes. They contain a carbon-to-carbon double bond, which also means they have two fewer hydrogen atoms than their corresponding alkane. An alkene has “-ene” in its name.
For example, the displayed formula for ethene (C₂H₄) is:
and the displayed formula of propene (C₃H₆) is:
With longer alkene molecules the double bond might appear in different locations of the carbon chain, so the name needs to be a little bit more complicated to be able to describe these differences clearly. A number is added in the middle of the name to indicate at which carbon the double bond starts.
So the displayed formula of pent-1-ene is:
and this is the displayed formula of pent-2-ene:
However, take care that when counting which carbon has the double bond. The numbers start from the end that produces the smallest numbers in the name. For example, this is the displayed formula for pent-1-ene again, but just drawn the other way round. It is still pent-1-ene (you can’t get pent-4-ene):
Naming straight-chain alcohols
We get the same pattern all over again with the group of organic molecules called alcohols, which are recognised by an -OH functional group. For example here is the displayed formula for ethanol, which has 2 carbon atoms in the longest chain:
and here is the displayed formula for butanol:
Summary of naming simple straight-chain organic molecules
The following table summarises the naming of some of the straight-chain alkanes, alkenes and alcohols, giving a name and a molecular formula for each:
| Carbons in longest chain | Alkanes | Alkenes | Alcohols |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | methane, CH₄ | - | methanol, CH₄O |
| 2 | ethane, C₂H₆ | ethene, C₂H₄ | ethanol, C₂H₆O |
| 3 | propane, C₃H₈ | propene, C₃H₆ | propanol, C₃H₈O |
| 4 | butane, C₄H₁₀ | butene, C₄H₈ | butanol, C₄H₁₀O |
Naming branched alkanes and alkenes
The naming conventions for organic molecules cover more than the straight chain molecules. Branched molecules are named depending on the number of carbon atoms in the branch. A branch with 1 carbon is called “methyl” and a branch with 2 carbons is called “ethyl”. This is similar to the conventions covered above, plus the “-yl-” bit just says it is a branch.
For example, this is the displayed formula for 2-methyl hexane:
In the name 2-methyl hexane, the number 2 indicates that when counting along the longest carbon chain the methyl branch comes off the second carbon atom. The “methyl” bit of the name says there is one branch of 1 carbon. The “hex” bit of the name says the longest consecutive chain of carbon atoms is 6. The “ane” bit says the molecule has only single bonds.
When counting along the carbon atoms of the longest chain to work out the name, the numbering of carbon atoms starts from the end nearest to the branch. Another way to put this is that the name is given such that the numbers in the name are as low as possible. For example, here is the displayed formula for 4-ethyl octane:
Another example, this time with 2 methyl branches coming off the second and third carbons of the chain, is 2,3-dimethyl hexane. The “di” in the name indicates there are two methyl groups. This is the same way in which “di” indicates there are two oxygen atoms in carbon dioxide.
Another example of how the naming convention works for branches is 2,2-dimethyl hexane:
This naming of branches also applies to alkenes. Here is the displayed formula of 4-methylpent-1-ene:
4:05 understand how to write the possible structural and displayed formulae of an organic molecule given its molecular formula
The molecular formula describes the actual number of each type of each atom in a molecule.
For example, a molecular formula of C₆H₁₂ tells us that in each molecule there are 6 carbon atoms and 12 hydrogen atoms.
However, the molecular formula tells us nothing about how those atoms are arranged. For example, it does not tell us if there any branches of carbon atoms coming off the main carbon-carbon chain, nor how long or how many there might be.
On the other hand, the structural formula and displayed formula of a molecule tell us clearly how the atoms are arranged in that molecule.
This means that if we are given a molecular formula only, there may be several possible structural and displayed formulae all of which could apply for that molecule.
When trying to work out possible structural or displayed formulae from a molecular formula there are several clues:
- If the molecular formula only has carbon and hydrogen in it, then of course the structural formula will only have atoms of these 2 elements.
- If the molecular formula has twice as many carbons as hydrogens (CnH2n) then the molecule is an alkene and has a double bond somewhere between 2 of the carbon atoms.
- If the molecular formula has two more than twice as many carbons as hydrogens (CnH2n+2) then the molecule is an alkane and only has single bonds.
- If the molecular formula has two more than twice as many carbons as hydrogens and also has an oxygen atom (CnH2n+2O), then the molecule is an alcohol, and somewhere in the displayed formula will be a carbon single-bonded to an oxygen which itself is then single-bonded to a hydrogen.
4:06 understand how to classify reactions of organic compounds as substitution, addition and combustion. Knowledge of reaction mechanisms is not required
In a substitution reaction an atom or group of atoms is replaced by a different atom or group of atoms. For example when ethane reacts with bromine gas one of the hydrogen atoms in ethane is substituted by one of the atoms of bromine from within the bromine molecule:
CH₃-CH₃ + Br-Br → CH₃-CH₂Br + H-Br
ethane + bromine → bromoethane + hydrogen bromide
An addition reaction occurs when an atom or group of atoms is added to a molecule without taking anything away. For example when ethene reacts with bromine gas, the product is simply the addition of the two molecules:
CH₂=CH₂ + Br-Br → CH₂Br-CH₂Br
A combustion reaction is another way to say ‘burning’ and is a reaction with oxygen. Combustion of hydrocarbons with excess oxygen gives the products water and carbon dioxide, and also releases heat energy (exothermic reaction). Two examples the combustion of propane and the combustion of butene:
C₃H₈ + 5O₂ → 3CO₂ + 4H₂O
C₄H₈ + 6O₂ → 4CO₂ + 4H₂O