Chemistry

2:02 understand how the differences between the reactions of lithium, sodium and potassium with air and water provide evidence for the trend in reactivity in Group 1

Lithium is the first element in group 1 of the Periodic Table. The observations for the reaction of lithium and water are:

  1. fizzing (hydrogen gas is released)
  2. lithium floats and moves around on the water
  3. lithium disappears

Sodium is the second alkali metal in the group. The reaction of sodium and water is more vigorous than lithium’s:

  1. fizzing (hydrogen gas is released)
  2. sodium floats and moves around on the water
  3. sodium melts into a silver-coloured ball
  4. sodium disappears

Potassium is the third alkali metal in the group. The reaction of potassium and water is more vigorous than sodium’s:

  1. fizzing (hydrogen gas is released)
  2. potassium floats and moves around on the water
  3. catches fire with a LILAC flame
  4. potassium disappears

When the group 1 metals react with air they oxidise, showing a similar trend in reactivity as we go down the group of the Periodic Table.

Therefore, as we go down group 1 (increasing atomic number), the elements become more reactive: Li<Na<K<Rb<Cs<Fr

2023-01-10T12:29:20+00:00Categories: (a) Group 1 (alkali metals) – lithium, sodium and potassium, 2 Inorganic chemistry, Edexcel iGCSE Chemistry|Tags: , , , , , , , , |

2:03 use knowledge of trends in Group 1 to predict the properties of other alkali metals

From the data in the table, it is possible to deduce the properties of francium from the trends in the other group 1 metals.

For example, we can predict that francium will have a melting point around 20⁰C and a density of just over 2g/cm³.

We can also predict that francium will react violently with water, producing francium hydroxide and hydrogen.

Alkali metalMelting point (⁰C)Density (g/cm³)Reaction with waterProducts
lithium (Li)1810.53fizzinglithium hydroxide + hydrogen
sodium (Na)980.97rapid fizzingsodium hydroxide + hydrogen
potassium (K)630.86vigorous fizzing and lilac flamepotassium hydroxide + hydrogen
rubidium (Rb)391.53?rubidium hydroxide + hydrogen
caesium(Cs)291.88?caesium hydroxide + hydrogen
francium (Fr)????
2023-01-10T12:29:32+00:00Categories: (a) Group 1 (alkali metals) – lithium, sodium and potassium, 2 Inorganic chemistry, Edexcel iGCSE Chemistry|Tags: , , , , , , , , |

2:04 (Triple only) explain the trend in reactivity in Group 1 in terms of electronic configurations

As you go down the group the outer electron lost from the group 1 metal is further from the nucleus therefore the electron is less attracted by the nucleus and therefore more easily lost.
2019-06-21T14:03:07+00:00Categories: (a) Group 1 (alkali metals) – lithium, sodium and potassium, 2 Inorganic chemistry, Edexcel iGCSE Chemistry|Tags: , , , , , , |

2:05 know the colours, physical states (at room temperature) and trends in physical properties of chlorine, bromine and iodine

ElementColourState at room temp
Chlorine (Cl2)GreenGas
Bromine (Br2)Red-brownLiquid
Iodine (l2)GreySolid

Chlorine is a toxic gas, so should be handled in a fume cupboard.

2023-01-10T11:50:40+00:00Categories: (b) Group 7 (halogens) – chlorine, bromine and iodine, 2 Inorganic chemistry, Edexcel iGCSE Chemistry|Tags: , , , , , , , , |

2:06 use knowledge of trends in Group 7 to predict the properties of other halogens

If you look at the trends in the physical properties of the halogens, Cl2, Br2, I2 you can make predictions about the properties of the other halogens.

ElementColourState at room temp
Fluorine (F2)YellowGas
Astatine (At2)BlackSolid
2023-01-10T11:51:01+00:00Categories: (b) Group 7 (halogens) – chlorine, bromine and iodine, 2 Inorganic chemistry, Edexcel iGCSE Chemistry|Tags: , , , , , , , , |

2:07 understand how displacement reactions involving halogens and halides provide evidence for the trend in reactivity in Group 7

Group 7 elements are called the Halogens. As you go up group 7 (decreasing atomic number), the elements become more reactive. For example, fluorine is the most reactive and astatine is the least reactive.

 

A more reactive halogen will displace a less reactive halogen, e.g. chlorine will displace bromine:

By reacting a halogen solution with a potassium halide solution and making observations, the order of their reactivity can be deduced:

Potassium chloride, KCl(aq)Potassium bromide, KBr(aq)Potassium iodide, KI(aq)
Chlorine, Cl2(aq)No changeColourless to orangeColourless to brown
Bromine, Br2(aq)No changeNo changeColourless to brown
Iodine, I2(aq)No changeNo changeNo change

From the above results, chlorine displaces both bromine and iodine, and bromine displaces iodine. Therefore the order of reactivity is: chlorine is more reactive than bromine, which in turn is more reactive than iodine.

2023-01-10T11:51:13+00:00Categories: (b) Group 7 (halogens) – chlorine, bromine and iodine, 2 Inorganic chemistry, Edexcel iGCSE Chemistry|Tags: , , , , , , , , |

2:08 (Triple only) explain the trend in reactivity in Group 7 in terms of electronic configurations

The higher up we go in group 7 (halogens) of the periodic table, the more reactive the element. The explanation concerns how readily these elements form ions, by attracting a passing electron to fill the outer shell.

In fluorine the outer electron shell is very close to the positively charged nucleus, so the attraction between this nucleus and the negatively charged electrons is very strong. This means fluorine is very reactive indeed.

However, for iodine the outer electron shell is much further from the nucleus so the attraction is weaker. This means iodine is less reactive.

2019-06-21T14:04:08+00:00Categories: (b) Group 7 (halogens) – chlorine, bromine and iodine, 2 Inorganic chemistry, Edexcel iGCSE Chemistry|Tags: , , , , , , , |

2:09 know the approximate percentages by volume of the four most abundant gases in dry air

Air is a mixture of different gases.

The abundance of gases in the air is as follows:

Gas% by volume
Nitrogen, N278.1
Oxygen, O221.0
Argon, Ar0.9
Carbon dioxide, CO20.04
2023-09-18T11:05:32+00:00Categories: (c) Gases in the atmosphere, 2 Inorganic chemistry, Edexcel iGCSE Chemistry|Tags: , , , , , , , |

2:10 understand how to determine the percentage by volume of oxygen in air using experiments involving the reactions of metals (e.g. iron) and non-metals (e.g. phosphorus) with air

The following 3 experiments can be used to determine that oxygen (O2) makes up approximately 20% by volume of the composition of air.

Copper

The copper is in excess and uses up the oxygen to form copper oxide (CuO).

All the oxygen in the air is therefore used up, and so the volume of the air decreases by about 20% (the percentage of oxygen in air).

 

Iron

The iron reacts with the oxygen in the air (rusting).

As long as the iron and water are in excess, the total volume of air enclosed by the apparatus decreases by about a fifth (20%) over several days.

 

Phosphorus

The phosphorus is lit with a hot wire.

It reacts with the oxygen in the air and causes the water level in the bell jar to rise by about 20%.

 

2023-09-18T11:06:04+00:00Categories: (c) Gases in the atmosphere, 2 Inorganic chemistry, Edexcel iGCSE Chemistry|Tags: , , , , , , , , |

2:11 describe the combustion of elements in oxygen, including magnesium, hydrogen and sulfur

Magnesium reacts with oxygen producing a bright white flame leaving behind a white ash of magnesium oxide.

          magnesium   +   oxygen   →   magnesium oxide

          2Mg (s)   +   O₂ (g)   →   2MgO

MgO is a base, which can react with an acid to give a salt and water.

 

Hydrogen reacts with oxygen in an explosive reaction. This is the basis of the ‘squeak pop’ test for hydrogen in test tube. With larger quantities of hydrogen this explosion can be dangerous.

          hydrogen   +   oxygen   →   water

          2H₂ (g)   +   O₂ (g)   →   2H₂O (l)

 

Sulfur reacts with oxygen producing a blue flame.

          sulfur   +   oxygen   →   sulfur dioxide

          S (s)   +   O₂ (g)   →   SO₂ (g)

When sulfur dioxide (SO₂) dissolves in water it forms an acidic solution of sulfurous acid:

          SO₂ (g)   +   H₂O (l)   →   H₂SO₃ (aq)

2022-11-30T14:20:27+00:00Categories: (c) Gases in the atmosphere, 2 Inorganic chemistry, Edexcel iGCSE Chemistry|Tags: , , , , , , , |

2:12 describe the formation of carbon dioxide from the thermal decomposition of metal carbonates, including copper(II) carbonate

thermal decomposition is the process of breaking down by heating.

On heating metal carbonates thermal decompose into metal oxides and carbon dioxide.

Observation: green powder (CuCO3) changes to a black powder (CuO)

2022-11-28T13:09:36+00:00Categories: (c) Gases in the atmosphere, 2 Inorganic chemistry, Edexcel iGCSE Chemistry|Tags: , , , , , , , |

2:13 know that carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas and that increasing amounts in the atmosphere may contribute to climate change

Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a greenhouse gas.

It absorbs infra-red radiation and therefore warms the atmosphere. This leads to global warming.

This may cause climate change.
2022-11-30T14:20:45+00:00Categories: (c) Gases in the atmosphere, 2 Inorganic chemistry, Edexcel iGCSE Chemistry|Tags: , , , , , , , |

2:14 Practical: determine the approximate percentage by volume of oxygen in air using a metal or a non-metal

The following 3 experiments can be used to determine that oxygen (O2) makes up approximately 20% by volume of air.

Copper

The copper is in excess and uses up the oxygen to form copper oxide (CuO).

All the oxygen in the air is therefore used up, and so the volume of the air decreases by about 20% (the percentage of oxygen in air).

 

Iron

The iron reacts with the oxygen in the air (rusting).

As long as the iron, oxygen and water are all in excess, the total volume of air enclosed by the apparatus decreases by about a fifth (20%) over several days.

 

Phosphorus

The phosphorus is lit with a hot wire.

It reacts with the oxygen in the air and causes the water level in the bell jar to rise by about 20%.

 
2023-09-18T11:06:27+00:00Categories: (c) Gases in the atmosphere, 2 Inorganic chemistry, Edexcel iGCSE Chemistry|Tags: , , , , , , , , |

2:15 understand how metals can be arranged in a reactivity series based on their reactions with: water and dilute hydrochloric or sulfuric acid

Some metals are more reactive than others.

The order of reactivity can be determined by adding acid to different metals and observing the rate of reaction.

For example, when hydrochloric acid is added to iron (Fe) then bubbles of hydrogen are produced slowly. However, if the same acid is added to zinc (Zn) then bubbles will be produced more quickly. This tells us that zinc is more reactive than iron.

Instead of using acid, water can be used to test the relative reactivity of metals. However, many metals are too low in the reactivity series to react with water

2023-01-10T12:30:26+00:00Categories: (d) Reactivity series, 2 Inorganic chemistry, Edexcel iGCSE Chemistry|Tags: , , , , , , , , |

2:16 understand how metals can be arranged in a reactivity series based on their displacement reactions between: metals and metal oxides, metals and aqueous solutions of metal salts

A metal will displace another metal from its oxide that is lower in the reactivity series. For example, a reaction with magnesium and copper (II) oxide will result in the magnesium displacing the copper from its oxide:

A metal will also displace another metal from its salt that is lower in the reactivity series. For example, the reaction between zinc and copper (II) sulfate solution will result in zinc displacing the copper from its salt:

The blue colour of the copper (II) sulfate solution fades as colourless zinc sulfate solution is formed.
2023-01-10T12:30:47+00:00Categories: (d) Reactivity series, 2 Inorganic chemistry, Edexcel iGCSE Chemistry|Tags: , , , , , , , , |

2:17 know the order of reactivity of these metals: potassium, sodium, lithium, calcium, magnesium, aluminium, zinc, iron, copper, silver, gold

A more reactive metal will displace a less reactive metal.

In addition a more reactive metal will react more vigorously than a less reactive metal.

For example, potassium takes a shorter time to react than sodium:
2023-01-10T12:31:04+00:00Categories: (d) Reactivity series, 2 Inorganic chemistry, Edexcel iGCSE Chemistry|Tags: , , , , , , , , |

2:19a understand how the rusting of iron may be prevented by: barrier methods, galvanising

Barrier Methods: Rusting may be prevented by stopping the water and oxygen getting to the iron with a barrier of grease, oil, paint or plastic.

Galvanising: (coating in zinc) also prevents water and oxygen getting to the iron, but with galvanising even if the barrier is broken the more reactive zinc corrodes before the less reactive iron. During the process, the zinc loses electrons to form zinc ions.

 

2022-12-12T11:13:19+00:00Categories: (d) Reactivity series, 2 Inorganic chemistry, Edexcel iGCSE Chemistry|Tags: , , , , , |

2:19 understand how the rusting of iron may be prevented by: barrier methods, galvanising and sacrificial protection

Barrier Methods: Rusting may be prevented by stopping the water and oxygen getting to the iron with a barrier of grease, oil, paint or plastic.

Galvanising: (coating in zinc) also prevents water and oxygen getting to the iron, but with galvanising even if the barrier is broken the more reactive zinc corrodes before the less reactive iron. During the process, the zinc loses electrons to form zinc ions.

Sacrificial Protection: Zinc blocks are attached to iron boat hulls and underground pipelines to act as sacrificial anodes. Zinc is more reactive than iron, so oxygen in the air reacts with the zinc to form a layer of zinc oxide instead of the iron.

2023-01-10T12:31:29+00:00Categories: (d) Reactivity series, 2 Inorganic chemistry, Edexcel iGCSE Chemistry|Tags: , , , , , , , |

2:20 in terms of gain or loss of oxygen and loss or gain of electrons, understand the terms: oxidation, reduction, redox, oxidising agent, reducing agent, in terms of gain or loss of oxygen and loss or gain of electrons

Oxidation

  • Oxidation is the loss of electrons. For example a sodium atom (Na) loses an electron to become a sodium ion (Na⁺). Another example is a chloride ion (Cl⁻) losing an electron to become a chlorine atom (Cl).
  • Another definition of oxidation is the gain of oxygen. For example if carbon combines with oxygen to form carbon dioxide, the carbon is being oxidised.

 

Reduction

  • Reduction is the gain of electrons. For example a sodium ion (Na⁺) gains an electron to become a sodium atom (Na). Another example is a chlorine atom (Cl) gaining an electron to become a chloride ion (Cl⁻).
  • Another definition of reduction is the loss of oxygen. For example when aluminium oxide is broken down to produce aluminium and oxygen, the aluminium is being reduced.

 

Redox: A reaction involving oxidation and reduction.

A good way to remember the definitions of oxidation and reduction in terms of electrons is:

  • OILRIG : Oxidation Is the Loss of electrons and Reduction Is the Gain of electrons

 

Oxidising agent: A substance that gives oxygen or removes electrons (it is itself reduced).

 

Reducing agent: A substance that takes oxygen or gives electrons (it is itself oxidised).

 

2023-04-19T10:58:30+00:00Categories: (d) Reactivity series, 2 Inorganic chemistry, Edexcel iGCSE Chemistry|Tags: , , , , , , , , |

2:21 practical: investigate reactions between dilute hydrochloric and sulfuric acids and metals (e.g. magnesium, zinc and iron)

Metals which are above hydrogen in the reactivity series will react with dilute hydrochloric or sulfuric acid to produce a salt and hydrogen.

metal   +   acid   →   salt   +   hydrogen

For example:

         magnesium   +   hydrochloric acid   →   magnesium chloride   +   hydrogen

         Mg (s)         +         2HCl (aq)         →         MgCl₂ (aq)         +         H₂ (g)

This is a displacement reaction.

Image result for magnesium + hydrochloric acid

There is a rapid fizzing and a colourless gas is produced. This gas pops with a lighted splint, showing the gas is hydrogen.

The reaction mixture becomes warm as heat is produced (exothermic).

The magnesium disappears to leave a colourless solution of magnesium chloride.

If more reactive metals are used instead of magnesium the reaction will be faster so the fizzing will be more vigorous and more heat will be produced.

2023-01-10T12:32:04+00:00Categories: (d) Reactivity series, 2 Inorganic chemistry, Edexcel iGCSE Chemistry|Tags: , , , , , , , , |

2:22 (Triple only) know that most metals are extracted from ores found in the Earth’s crust and that unreactive metals are often found as the uncombined element

Most metals are found in the Earth’s crust combined with other elements. Such compounds are found in rocks called ore, rocks from which it is worthwhile to extract a metal.

A few very unreactive metals, such as gold, are found native which means they are found in the Earth’s crust as the uncombined element.

 

2019-05-13T15:38:43+00:00Categories: (e) Extraction and uses of metals, 2 Inorganic chemistry, Edexcel iGCSE Chemistry|Tags: , , , , , , , |

2:23 (Triple only) explain how the method of extraction of a metal is related to its position in the reactivity series, illustrated by carbon extraction for iron and electrolysis for aluminium

Extraction of a metal from its ore typically involves removing oxygen from metal oxides.

 

If the ore contains a metal which is below carbon in the reactivity series then the metal is extracted by reaction with carbon in a displacement reaction.

 

If the ore contains a metal which is above carbon in the reactivity series then electrolysis (or reaction with a more reactive metal) is used to extract the metal.

2019-05-13T15:38:34+00:00Categories: (e) Extraction and uses of metals, 2 Inorganic chemistry, Edexcel iGCSE Chemistry|Tags: , , , , , , |

2:24 (Triple only) be able to comment on a metal extraction process, given appropriate information

Extraction of a metal from its ore typically involves removing oxygen from metal oxides.

 

If the ore contains a metal which is below carbon in the reactivity series then the metal is extracted by reaction with carbon in a displacement reaction.

 

If the ore contains a metal which is above carbon in the reactivity series then electrolysis (or reaction with a more reactive metal) is used to extract the metal.

2019-05-13T15:38:25+00:00Categories: (e) Extraction and uses of metals, 2 Inorganic chemistry, Edexcel iGCSE Chemistry|Tags: , , , , , , |

2:25 (Triple only) explain the uses of aluminium, copper, iron and steel in terms of their properties the types of steel will be limited to low-carbon (mild), high-carbon and stainless

Aluminium
UseProperty
Aircrafts and cansLow density / resists corrosion
Power cablesConducts electricity / ductile
Pots and pansLow density / strong (when alloyed) / good conductor of electricity and heat

Aluminium resists corrosion because it has a very thin, but very strong, layer of aluminium oxide on the surface.

Copper
UseProperty
Electrical wiresvery good conductor of electricity and ductile
Pots and pansvery good conductor of heat / very unreactive / malleable
Water pipesunreactive / malleable
Surfaces in hospitalsantimicrobial properties / malleable
Iron
UseProperty
BuildingsStrong
SaucepansConducts heat / high melting point / malleable
Steel
Type of steelIron mixed withSome uses
Mild steelup to 0.25% carbonnails, car bodies, ship building, girders
High-carbon steel0.6%-1.2% carboncutting tools, masonry nails
Stainless steelChromium (and nickel)cutlery, cooking utensils, kitchen sinks

Mild steel is a strong material that can easily be hammered into various shapes (malleable). It rusts easily.

High-carbon steel is harder than mild steel but more brittle (not as malleable).

Stainless steel forms a strong, protective oxide layer so is very resistant to corrosion.
2019-06-21T14:45:07+00:00Categories: (e) Extraction and uses of metals, 2 Inorganic chemistry, Edexcel iGCSE Chemistry|Tags: , , , , , , |

2:26 (Triple only) know that an alloy is a mixture of a metal and one or more elements, usually other metals or carbon

An alloy is a mixture  of a metal with, usually, other metals or carbon.

For example, brass is a alloy of copper and zinc, and steel is an alloy of iron and carbon.

2019-06-21T14:45:47+00:00Categories: (e) Extraction and uses of metals, 2 Inorganic chemistry, Edexcel iGCSE Chemistry|Tags: , , , , , , , |

2:27 (Triple only) explain why alloys are harder than pure metals

Alloys are harder than the individual pure metals from which they are made.

In an alloy, the different elements have slightly different sized atoms. This breaks up the regular lattice arrangement and makes it more difficult for layers of ions to slide over each other.

 

2019-06-21T14:46:10+00:00Categories: (e) Extraction and uses of metals, 2 Inorganic chemistry, Edexcel iGCSE Chemistry|Tags: , , , , , , , |

2:28 describe the use of litmus, phenolphthalein and methyl orange to distinguish between acidic and alkaline solutions

Indicators are substances which change colour in response to a change in pH (acid or alkali).

IndicatorColour in acidic solution [H+]Colour in alkaline solution [OH-]
LitmusRedBlue
Methyl orangeRedYellow
PhenolphthaleinColourlessPink

Methyl orange is orange in a neutral solution
2023-01-13T22:06:03+00:00Categories: (f) Acids, alkalis and titrations, 2 Inorganic chemistry, Edexcel iGCSE Chemistry|Tags: , , , , , , |

2:29 understand how to use the pH scale, from 0–14, can be used to classify solutions as strongly acidic (0–3), weakly acidic (4–6), neutral (7), weakly alkaline (8–10) and strongly alkaline (11–14)

The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14, and tells you how acidic or how alkaline a solution is.

strongly acidicweakly acidicneutralweakly alkalinestrongly alkaline
pH0-34-678-1011-14

2023-01-10T11:38:25+00:00Categories: (f) Acids, alkalis and titrations, 2 Inorganic chemistry, Edexcel iGCSE Chemistry|Tags: , , , , , , , , , |

2:30 describe the use of Universal Indicator to measure the approximate pH value of an aqueous solution

An indicator is a substance that has more than one colour form depending on the pH.

Universal indicator is a mixture of different dyes which change colour in a gradual way over a range of pH.
2023-01-10T11:39:19+00:00Categories: (f) Acids, alkalis and titrations, 2 Inorganic chemistry, Edexcel iGCSE Chemistry|Tags: , , , , , , , , , |

2:31 know that acids in aqueous solution are a source of hydrogen ions and alkalis in a aqueous solution are a source of hydroxide ions

An acid is source of hydrogen ions (H+).

An alkali is source of hydroxide ions (OH–).
2023-01-10T11:39:28+00:00Categories: (f) Acids, alkalis and titrations, 2 Inorganic chemistry, Edexcel iGCSE Chemistry|Tags: , , , , , , , , , |

2:32 know that bases can neutralise acids

Metal oxides, metal hydroxides and ammonia (NH₃) are called bases.

Bases neutralise acids by combining with the hydrogen ions in them.

The key reaction is:

   acid             +             base             →            salt             +             water

An example of this is:

   sulfuric acid   +   copper oxide   →   copper sulfate   +   water

   H₂SO₄          +          CuO          →          CuSO₄          +          H₂O

2023-09-18T11:07:11+00:00Categories: (f) Acids, alkalis and titrations, 2 Inorganic chemistry, Edexcel iGCSE Chemistry|Tags: , , , , , , , , , |

2:33 (Triple only) describe how to carry out an acid-alkali titration

Titration is used to find out precisely how much acid neutralises a certain volume of alkali (or vice versa).

The diagram shows the titration method for a neutralisation reaction between hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide, using phenolphthalein as an indicator. The indicator changes colour when neutralisation occurs.

The conical flask is swirled to mix the solutions each time alkali is added. When reading the burette it is important to be aware that the numbers on the scale increase from top to bottom. Readings are usually recorded to the nearest 0.05cm³ so all readings should be written down with 2 decimal places. The second decimal place is given as a ‘0’ if the level of the solution is on a line, or ‘5’ if it is between the lines. The volume of alkali added is calculated by subtracting the final reading from the initial reading. Various indicators can be used such as phenolphthalein or methyl orange. However universal indicator should not be used since it has a wide range of colours rather than one specific colour change so it would be unclear when the precise endpoint of titration was achieved.

This process is repeated a number of times. The first time it is done roughly to get a good approximation of how much alkali needs to be added. On subsequent attempts, the alkali is added very slowly when approaching the correct volume.

2019-05-13T15:37:44+00:00Categories: (f) Acids, alkalis and titrations, 2 Inorganic chemistry, Edexcel iGCSE Chemistry|Tags: , , , , , , , |
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Section 1: Principles of chemistry

      a) States of matter

      b) Atoms

      c) Atomic structure

     d) Relative formula masses and molar volumes of gases

     e) Chemical formulae and chemical equations

     f) Ionic compounds

     g) Covalent substances

     h) Metallic crystals

     i) Electrolysis

 Section 2: Chemistry of the elements

     a) The Periodic Table

     b) Group 1 elements: lithium, sodium and potassium

     c) Group 7 elements: chlorine, bromine and iodine

     d) Oxygen and oxides

     e) Hydrogen and water

     f) Reactivity series

     g) Tests for ions and gases

Section 3: Organic chemistry

     a) Introduction

     b) Alkanes

     c) Alkenes

     d) Ethanol

Section 4: Physical chemistry

     a) Acids, alkalis and salts

     b) Energetics

     c) Rates of reaction

     d) Equilibria

Section 5: Chemistry in industry

     a) Extraction and uses of metals

     b) Crude oil

     c) Synthetic polymers

     d) The industrial manufacture of chemicals

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